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Popular memory—shaped heavily by the Romance of the Three Kingdoms—portrays Cao Cao’s invasion of Xu Province in 193 AD as a brutal act of filial vengeance: his father, Cao Song, was murdered in Tao Qian’s territory, so Cao Cao launched a merciless campaign to avenge him.
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Chapter 10 of Romance of the Three Kingdoms unfolds against a backdrop of escalating chaos following the collapse of central authority in Chang’an.
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In the turbulent struggle to unify northern China during the late Eastern Han dynasty, Cao Cao faced two primary threats: Yuan Shao, the dominant warlord of the north, and Lü Bu, the fearsome but unstable warrior who controlled key territories to the southeast. While Yuan Shao commanded vast armies and held sway over four…
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During the late Eastern Han Dynasty, warlords engaged in constant warfare to seize territory. Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu, though half-brothers, turned against each other due to conflicting interests, each forming their own military alliances. Initially, Yuan Shu, Gongsun Zan, and Tao Qian belonged to the same faction. However, driven by self-interest, Yuan Shu…
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In February 195 AD, during a high-level meeting in Chang’an, Li Jue ordered the assassination of his fellow warlord Fan Chou, who had grown increasingly influential and independent. The killing, carried out by Li Jue’s nephew Li Li, shattered the fragile alliance among the warlords controlling the Han court. From this point on, mutual…
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Throughout his life, Cao Cao formed deep friendships with many individuals, though due to various reasons, he also fell out with numerous close friends, ultimately becoming mortal enemies. Among those who eventually turned against him, Zhang Miao and Yuan Shao are two poignant examples.
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In the summer of 194 AD, Cao Cao assembled a massive army to launch his second invasion of Xu Province, this time under the banner of filial vengeance. His father, Cao Song, had been murdered by soldiers of Tao Qian.