•
Wan Zhang asked Mencius: “Song is a small state. If it now implements kingly governance (benevolent governance), and Qi and Chu resent it and attack – what should it do?”
•
Duke Wen of Teng asked Mencius: “Teng is a small state, squeezed between the great powers of Qi and Chu. Should we submit to Qi, or align ourselves with Chu?”
•
After the collapse of Su Qin’s Vertical Alliance (Hezong), a new threat emerged to Qin’s ambition: the alliance between Qi and Chu, the two most powerful eastern states. United, they could block Qin’s path to unification.
•
In 338 BCE, Duke Xiao of Qin fell gravely ill and died. His son ascended the throne as King Huiwen of Qin.
•
Duke Wen of Jin was angered by Zheng’s “fence-sitting” diplomatic tendencies during the power struggle between Jin and Chu. Zheng had ostensibly submitted to Jin while secretly maintaining ties with Chu, a stance that deeply frustrated the Jin ruler.
•
During the exile of Chong’er, when he passed through the State of Zheng, Duke Wen of Zheng failed to receive him with due courtesy, thus sowing the seeds of personal resentment.
•
Duke Wen of Jin (Ji Chong’er), the 22nd ruler of the State of Jin during the Spring and Autumn period (reigned 636–628 BCE), is renowned as one of the Five Hegemons. His path to power was extraordinary, marked by nineteen years of exile before his dramatic return and eventual dominance over the central states.
•
After the death of Guan Zhong, Duke Huan of Qi – once the undisputed hegemon of the Spring and Autumn period – grew indulgent and neglected state affairs. With his passing, Qi’s dominance crumbled, leaving a power vacuum.