The grudge between Zhang Xiu and Cao Cao is well-known, but why did Cao Cao ultimately let go of this hatred? Was it truly to demonstrate his magnanimity? In reality, the conflict between them was entirely of Cao Cao’s own making.
The insult that sparked resentment
In 197 CE, Cao Cao launched a southern expedition against Zhang Xiu, who promptly surrendered. However, shortly after his surrender, an extremely awkward incident occurred. Historical records indicate that Zhang Xiu’s uncle, Zhang Ji, had died in battle while attacking Jing Province. After Zhang Xiu surrendered to Cao Cao, Cao Cao took a liking to Zhang Ji’s widow and forcibly took her as his own. Moreover, judging from Zhang Xiu’s subsequent reaction, it is highly likely that Cao Cao bypassed him entirely, acting without seeking Zhang Xiu’s opinion. Since Zhang Xiu had inherited his uncle’s position and become a warlord, Zhang Ji was like a father to him, making his aunt akin to Zhang Xiu’s mother. Thus, Cao Cao’s actions deeply offended Zhang Xiu. If this news spread, what dignity would Zhang Xiu have left? Furthermore, he had surrendered voluntarily, not after being defeated.
From resentment to rebellion
At this stage, Zhang Xiu’s feelings were limited to hatred; he had not yet decided to turn against Cao Cao. However, when Cao Cao heard that Zhang Xiu was unhappy, he became displeased. Cao Cao then attempted to win over Zhang Xiu’s close associates, aiming to gradually absorb his forces and ultimately eliminate him. Upon learning of this, Zhang Xiu decided to rebel, feeling that Cao Cao had pushed him too far.
The ambush and its consequences
When Zhang Xiu resolved to resist, he adopted Jia Xu’s strategy. He approached Cao Cao, requesting permission to relocate his troops to higher ground. Cao Cao agreed, superficially out of trust, but in reality, he did not take Zhang Xiu seriously and saw no threat in him. Ultimately, Cao Cao paid a heavy price for his carelessness. Zhang Xiu launched a surprise attack, during which Cao Cao lost his eldest son, Cao Ang, his nephew Cao Anmin, and his loyal general Dian Wei.
Stalemate and a strategic decision
After this, Cao Cao launched several campaigns against Zhang Xiu but achieved no significant results. Before the Battle of Guandu, both Yuan Shao and Cao Cao sought to win Zhang Xiu over. Zhang Xiu leaned toward aligning with Yuan Shao, considering his stronger forces. However, at this critical moment, Jia Xu stepped forward. He first sharply rejected Yuan Shao’s envoy, then explained to Zhang Xiu that surrendering to Cao Cao offered three advantages:
- First, Cao Cao held the Emperor hostage, granting him legitimacy;
- Second, Cao Cao’s relatively weaker position meant he would value their support more;
- Third, precisely because of their past enmity, Cao Cao would treat them well to demonstrate his magnanimity and tolerance.
A calculated reconciliation
Jia Xu’s assessment was indeed correct.
In truth, everyone understood that Cao Cao’s actions during the first surrender of Zhang Xiu were truly dishonorable. Facing Zhang Xiu’s second surrender, Cao Cao behaved much more prudently. He greeted Zhang Xiu warmly, clasping his hand and feasting joyfully. Later, he even arranged for his son Cao Jun to marry Zhang Xiu’s daughter. Cao Cao was genuinely pleased that Zhang Xiu chose to surrender to him a second time.
Post-surrender strategies
After his second surrender to Cao Cao, Jia Xu maintained an extremely low profile. Knowing he was not one of Cao Cao’s original subordinates, he feared Cao Cao might suspect him due to his cunning and resourcefulness. To alleviate these concerns, Jia Xu adopted an unassuming lifestyle, acting cautiously and never seeking the spotlight. Although he offered Cao Cao many useful strategies, he never boasted about his contributions. Historical records note that Jia Xu never formed private alliances, and he avoided marrying his children into powerful families.
In contrast, Zhang Xiu clearly lacked Jia Xu’s level of awareness. During the Battle of Guandu and subsequent campaigns, he fought vigorously and repeatedly distinguished himself. Regarding Zhang Xiu’s ultimate fate, the Records of the Three Kingdoms state that he died after Cao Wei’s successful campaign against Wu State. However, other historical texts record an incident where Cao Pi repeatedly confronted Zhang Xiu during banquets, saying,
“You killed my brother; how can you bear to remain alive?”
Disturbed by this, Zhang Xiu ultimately took his own life. See more details from the tragedy of Zhang Xiu.
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