In early AD 220, Cao Cao fell gravely ill. On his deathbed, he summoned his closest ministers and gave clear, modest instructions:
“The empire is not yet at peace. After my death, bury me in my everyday clothes – no gold, no jewels. Officials should remain at their posts; do not cause disorder.”
The succession dilemma
His death threatened to plunge the court into chaos – not from external enemies, but from internal succession struggles among his sons.
Cao Cao’s principal wife, Lady Bian, bore four sons: Cao Pi, Cao Zhang, Cao Zhi, and Cao Xiong. Cao Xiong had died young. Of the survivors, Cao Zhi stood out for his extraordinary literary talent. As a poet himself, Cao Cao deeply admired Cao Zhi’s poetry and rhapsodies, and considered naming him heir multiple times.
Yet many ministers opposed this, insisting on the primogeniture tradition:
“Since ancient times, the eldest son succeeds. To break this rule invites turmoil.”
Cao Cao hesitated – and ultimately deferred the decision.
Cao Zhi’s self-sabotage
Despite his brilliance, Cao Zhi repeatedly undermined his own prospects through reckless behavior.
Cao Cao had decreed that family members must dress modestly – no embroidered silk. But one day, from a high terrace, he saw a woman in lavish attire strolling below. Investigation revealed she was Cao Zhi’s wife, Lady Cui. Enraged, Cao Cao forced her to commit suicide – a move also aimed at intimidating her powerful uncle, Cui Yan, a respected statesman whom Cao Cao later executed on dubious charges.
Worse followed. When Cao Cao ordered Cao Zhi to lead troops to relieve Cao Ren under siege, the prince was found dead drunk, unable to rise. (The Romance of the Three Kingdoms claims Cao Pi orchestrated this by getting him intoxicated – but historical records only confirm the drunkenness, not the plot.)
Then came the ultimate transgression: Cao Zhi brazenly drove his chariot through the Sima Gate, the exclusive royal entrance reserved for the king alone. This act bordered on treason. Cao Cao, trembling with fury, executed the gatekeeper and withdrew all favor from Cao Zhi.
Cao Pi’s calculated humility
Unlike his flamboyant brother, Cao Pi understood the value of restraint and image. Though also a poet – and together with his father and brother forming the famed “Three Caos” of Jian’an literature – he prioritized political survival over artistic acclaim.
A telling episode occurred when Cao Cao departed for war. Cao Zhi delivered an eloquent, impromptu eulogy, earning praise from courtiers. Cao Pi, flustered and tongue-tied, received whispered advice from a confidant:
“Just weep as you bid him farewell.”
He did. Kneeling silently, tears streaming down his face, Cao Pi conveyed filial devotion without words. Observers were moved:
“Cao Pi is sincere; Cao Zhi is merely showy.”
Soon after, Cao Cao named Cao Pi crown prince.
The race to power
When Cao Cao died in Luoyang, Cao Pi was still in Yecheng. But his younger brother Cao Zhang – the “Yellow-Bearded Son,” a fierce warrior who once declared, “I wish only to wear armor and lead soldiers!” – arrived first with troops.
He confronted Jia Kui, the minister overseeing funeral rites, demanding:
“Where is my father’s imperial seal?”
Jia Kui rebuked him sternly:
“State affairs are already arranged. You have no right to ask!”
Cao Zhang backed down. Days later, Cao Pi arrived, presided over the funeral, and assumed the title of King of Wei. Emperor Xian soon appointed him Chancellor of Han, consolidating his authority.
Fearing rivals, Cao Pi ordered both brothers back to their fiefdoms.
The Seven-Step Poem
Not long after, Cao Pi received reports that Cao Zhi had insulted imperial envoys while drunk. Seizing the chance to humiliate him, Cao Pi summoned his brother and declared:
“Though we are brothers, the law must be upheld. You’ve shown arrogance toward the throne. I command you: compose a poem within seven paces. Fail, and you die.”
Before even completing three steps, Cao Zhi recited:
Boiling beans with beanstalks,
The beans weep in the pot.
Born of the same root –
Why scorch us so fiercely?
The poem pierced Cao Pi’s conscience. Ashamed and silent, he spared Cao Zhi – but stripped him of part of his fief and sent him away.
The Rise of Wei
With opposition neutralized, Cao Pi turned to the final act: usurping the Han throne.
In late AD 220, officials like Li Fu began petitioning:
“The Han mandate has ended. Heaven ordains that Wei replace it.”
Cao Pi feigned reluctance, refusing three imperial edicts from Emperor Xian – a ritualized performance to mask usurpation as voluntary abdication. A Ceremonial Altar of Abdication was built, and a grand ceremony held.
Thus, in AD 220, Cao Pi ascended the throne as Emperor Wen of Wei, establishing the Cao Wei dynasty with its capital at Luoyang.
He enfeoffed the deposed Emperor Xian as Duke of Shanyang, allowing him to live in retirement. The Eastern Han dynasty, founded by Emperor Guangwu and lasting 196 years, came to an end.
Cao Pi posthumously honored his father as Emperor Wu of Wei, and Cao Cao’s loyalists became the founding ministers of the new regime.
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