In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, the Ten Regular Attendants (led by Zhang Rang and Zhao Zhong) are portrayed as a treacherous eunuch clique that harmed the nation and its people. Yet, Emperor Ling of Han (Liu Hong) obeyed them unconditionally and relied on them extensively. Why did such a political situation arise? This article analyzes why Emperor Ling of Han relied on eunuchs rather than officials from political, psychological, and institutional perspectives.
Eunuchs as tools of imperial power against external relatives
Since the reign of Emperor He of the Eastern Han Dynasty, a vicious cycle of alternating dominance between “external relatives and eunuchs” had formed:
- The young emperor ascends the throne → The empress dowager rules → External relatives hold power (e.g., Dou Xian, Liang Ji).
- The adult emperor seeks to reclaim power → Relies on eunuchs to launch a coup → Eunuchs gain influence.
- New external relatives rise → The cycle restarts.
Eunuchs were the meritorious servants who helped Emperor Ling of Han reclaim power from external relatives. His trust in them carried dual characteristics of political repayment and power dependence.
Emperor Ling’s ascension experience
Emperor Ling was originally a feudal prince. Due to Emperor Huan’s lack of heirs, he was enthroned by the external relative Dou Wu and the Grand Commandant(Imperial Guardian) Chen Fan.
The cause of Han’s fall may be traced to the reigns of Xian’s two predecessors, Huan and Ling. Huan drove from office and persecuted officials of integrity and ability, giving all his trust to his eunuchs. After Ling succeeded Huan as emperor, Regent-Marshal Dou Wu and Imperial Guardian Chen Fan, joint sustainers of the throne, planned to execute the power-abusing eunuch Cao Jie and his cohorts. But the plot came to light, and Dou Wu and Chen Fan were themselves put to death. From then on, the eunuchs knew no restraint.
— Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Chapter 1
Dou Wu sought to eradicate the eunuchs and revitalize the court. However, eunuchs like Cao Jie and Wang Fu preemptively struck, killing Dou Wu and Chen Fan and seizing control of the court.
Thus, Emperor Ling became a puppet supported by eunuchs. To protect his throne, he had no choice but to rely on them.
Emperor Ling’s personal factors
Emperor Ling was born and raised in a feudal residence. After entering the palace, he was surrounded by eunuchs for a long time, with his education, daily life, and sources of information entirely controlled by them. Leveraging their proximity to the emperor, the eunuchs discovered and exploited his weaknesses, manipulating him and interfering in court politics.
Emperor Ling had no interest in governing and indulged in pleasures. He once opened a “office for selling official positions” in the Western Garden, publicly auctioning positions to fund palace construction and pet keeping. The Ten Regular Attendants catered to his desires, assisting him in amassing wealth and arranging entertainment (e.g., the absurdities of the “Naked Swimming Palace” and “Western Garden Dog Officials”), becoming the emperor’s partners in indulgence.
Institutional flaws: Eunuchs control core power
The Ten Regular Attendants could monopolize power because they controlled key power nodes of the Eastern Han court:
- Palace Guards: Command of the imperial guards.
- Edict Issuance: Authority to draft imperial decrees on behalf of the emperor.
- “Huangmen” Supervision System: Control over the eunuch-led inspection system.
- Participation in “Western Garden Official Sales”: Direct involvement in state wealth accumulation through selling offices, influencing official selection, and eliminating dissenting forces.
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