Romance of the Three Kingdoms (or simply the Three Kingdoms) is one of China’s Four Great Classical Novels, authored by Luo Guanzhong during the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties. Its full title is Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi (Popular Romance of the Three Kingdoms).
Set against the backdrop of nearly a century of history from the late Eastern Han Dynasty to the early Western Jin Dynasty, the novel artistically blends historical records from Records of the Three Kingdoms and folk legends to depict the tumultuous era of warlord separatism, the tripartite rivalry between Wei, Shu, and Wu, and ultimately Sima Yan’s unification of the three kingdoms.
Structure of the Novel
The book is divided into five major parts: the Yellow Turban Rebellion(Yellow Scarves Uprising), the Turmoil of Dong Zhuo, the Struggle Among Warlords, the Tripartite Confrontation, and the Unification by Jin. Centering on the conflicts and struggles among the three major political-military factions led by Cao Cao, Liu Bei, and Sun Quan, it showcases grand war scenes and intricate political stratagems.
Artistic Features
Integration of military strategies (such as the Thirty-Six Stratagems) into the plot, highlighting the wisdom of warfare.
Vivid language and gripping plots, combining historical depth with literary appeal.
Impact and Status
As China’s first chapter-based historical novel, it pioneered the “historical romance” genre.
Its artistic adaptations have made the “Three Kingdoms story” deeply ingrained in culture, even surpassing historical reality to become a cultural symbol.
Romance of the Three Kingdoms is not merely a historical novel but an epic of human nature and political intrigue. Its profound social insights and artistic charm make it an insurmountable peak in Chinese literary history.
Shortcomings
Romance of the Three Kingdoms evolved through a long process of collective creation. Its authors included folk artists and feudal scholars, each with differing political and artistic views and creative intentions. Over time, the novel incorporated and fused historical content from different eras, resulting in complex ideological tendencies.
There are many editions of the novel, with over twenty known versions from the late Ming Dynasty alone, indicating its widespread circulation. In the early Qing Dynasty, Mao Lun and Mao Zonggang revised and republished the text, which has remained largely unchanged for about three centuries. This edition is the most popular version today. Their revisions strengthened the support for Liu Bei and condemnation of Cao Cao stance, adding subjective evaluations (e.g., labeling Cao Cao as a “traitor”) and imbuing the novel with strong feudal orthodox ideologies. For instance, the phrase “The world does not belong to one person but to all under heaven” from the Jiajing edition was removed, while the Mao edition reinforced the concept of “Han legitimacy” by vilifying Cao Cao and idealizing Liu Bei, conflicting with modern egalitarian values.
Due to historical limitations, the author advocated for “benevolent governance” while glorifying feudal rulers and feudal rule; fundamentally denied the historical role of peasant uprisings; promoted a hero-centric view of history, theism, and feudal superstitions; and emphasized feudal morals, particularly “loyalty” and “righteousness”.
The novel mixes extensive fictional elements, e.g., Diaochan(the beauty), the Empty Fort Strategy, borrowing arrows with straw boats, with historical facts, potentially misleading readers into accepting fiction as reality. Many plots lack realistic basis, such as Zhao Yun’s seven charges through Cao Cao’s camp at the Battle of Changban, or even defy military common sense, like Zhuge Liang’s “wooden ox and flowing horse” for grain transport.
Three Kingdoms is essentially a historical romance novel, not a rigorous historical work. Readers should refer to official histories like Records of the Three Kingdoms to distinguish fact from fiction and avoid mistaking all plots for historical truth.
Last but not least, written during the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties, the novel is influenced by Confucianism and folk culture, inevitably bearing the imprint of its time. It should not be judged solely by modern standards.
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