Brief: This article traces Empress Dowager Cixi’s rise. During the Second Opium War, Anglo‑French forces burned the Old Summer Palace. After Emperor Xianfeng died, Cixi allied with Prince Gong in the 1861 Xinyou Coup to overthrow the eight regents. She then began her nearly 50‑year rule behind the curtain, dominating the late Qing Dynasty.
I. The Arrow Incident and the Second Opium War
While the Taiping Rebellion tore China apart, foreign powers sought further concessions. In 1856, the Second Opium War began following the “Arrow Incident,” where Chinese officials boarded a British-registered ship. British Consul Harry Parkes used this to demand the release of suspected pirates, and when Governor-General Ye Mingchen complied but failed to apologize sufficiently, Parkes used it as a pretext for war. France joined under the guise of avenging a missionary.
By late 1857, Anglo-French forces captured Guangzhou and Ye Mingchen, exiling him to India. They then moved north, breaching the Dagu Forts near Tianjin. The Xianfeng Emperor, fearing a two-front war against both rebels and foreigners, authorized the Treaty of Tientsin (1858). However, he later attempted to block the ratification process by fortifying Dagu, leading to renewed conflict in 1859. Although General Sengge Rinchen initially repelled the invaders, a larger force returned in 1860, capturing Tianjin and threatening Beijing.
II. The Flight to Rehe and the Burning of the Old Summer Palace
As the allied army approached, panic struck the Qing court. Minister Sushun urged the Emperor to flee. Despite the protests of his brothers, including Prince Gong, Xianfeng abandoned the capital for the Rehe Mountain Resort, leaving Prince Gong to negotiate.
The retreating allies exacted a brutal revenge. They looted and burned the Old Summer Palace Yuanmingyuan), destroying countless cultural treasures. French writer Victor Hugo famously condemned this act as the vandalism of “civilization” against “barbarism.” The war concluded with the Convention of Peking (1860), which ceded Kowloon to Britain and opened new ports. Meanwhile, Russia exploited the chaos to seize vast territories in Manchuria via the Treaty of Aigun.
III. The Death of an Emperor
Humiliated and ill, the Xianfeng Emperor refused to return to Beijing. He succumbed to tuberculosis at Rehe in 1861 at the age of 31. On his deathbed, he named his six-year-old son, Zaichun, as successor and appointed eight regents led by Sushun to govern, requiring the imperial seals held by the Empresses for validation – a setup designed to prevent any single faction from dominating.
IV. The Coup of 1861
This arrangement sparked a power struggle. The late emperor’s consorts, Empress Dowager Ci’an and the ambitious Empress Dowager Cixi (mother of the new emperor), found themselves sidelined by the arrogant Sushun. Cixi, determined to rule, secretly allied with Prince Gong, who had been excluded from the regency despite his crucial role in the peace negotiations.
In a daring move known as the Xinyou Coup, Cixi and Prince Gong returned to Beijing ahead of the funeral procession. They arrested the regents; Sushun was executed, while others were forced to commit suicide or were exiled.
V. The Era of the Dragon Lady
With the opposition eliminated, the two Empress Dowagers established “rule behind the curtain.” The era name was changed to Tongzhi (“Joint Rule”). Prince Gong was appointed Prince-Regent and head of the Zongli Yamen (Foreign Office). While Ci’an remained in the background, Cixi seized supreme power, marking the beginning of her nearly half-century domination over the Qing Dynasty.
Note
Empress Dowager Cixi
The ambitious mother of the Tongzhi Emperor. She seized power in the 1861 coup and ruled Qing China for nearly 50 years.
Empress Dowager Ci’an
Co-ruler with Cixi after the coup; she stayed largely in the background.
Xianfeng Emperor
Qing ruler during the Second Opium War. He fled Beijing to Rehe and died young in 1861.
Prince Gong
Xianfeng’s brother, who negotiated peace with foreign powers. He allied with Cixi to overthrow the regents.
Sushun
Head of the eight regents; arrogant and hostile to Cixi. He was executed after the coup.
Sengge Rinchen
Qing general who repelled Anglo-French forces at Dagu Forts in 1859.
Ye Mingchen
Qing official captured in the Arrow Incident; exiled to India by the British.
Harry Parkes
British consul who used the Arrow Incident to trigger the Second Opium War.
Arrow Incident (1856)
Trigger of the Second Opium War; British used a ship dispute as a pretext for military action.
Second Opium War (1856–1860)
Anglo-French invasion of China; ended with the burning of the Old Summer Palace.
Burning of the Old Summer Palace (Yuanmingyuan, 1860)
Anglo-French troops looted and destroyed the imperial garden; widely condemned as cultural vandalism.
Xinyou Coup (1861)
Cixi and Prince Gong seized power by arresting the eight regents, starting her long reign.
Rule Behind the Curtain
Cixi’s system of ruling from behind the throne as the emperor’s guardian.
Treaty of Tientsin (1858)
Forced on Qing after the fall of Dagu Forts; expanded foreign privileges.
Convention of Peking (1860)
Ended the Second Opium War; ceded Kowloon to Britain.
Treaty of Aigun
Russia seized large parts of Manchuria during the war chaos.
Zongli Yamen
Qing’s first foreign affairs office, led by Prince Gong.
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