From Chaos to a New Order
Following the withdrawal of the Khitan (Liao) army, the city of Bian (Kaifeng) saw the arrival of Liu Zhiyuan, the Prince of Beiping. A Shatuo leader like his predecessors, Liu had initially opposed Shi Jingtang’s cession of the Sixteen Prefectures but later supported his rise. By balancing appeasement of the Khitans with sheltering anti-Khitan officials, Liu amassed significant power. After the fall of the Later Jin in 947 AD, he proclaimed himself emperor in Jinyang, establishing the Later Han dynasty with Bian as his capital. To win popular support, he retained the Later Jin’s era name and rewarded militias that had resisted the Khitans, quickly stabilizing the region.
However, stability was short-lived. The death of his favored son, Liu Chengxun, plunged Liu Zhiyuan into grief and illness. Before dying, he appointed his second son, Liu Chengyou, as successor, warning his ministers to beware of the treacherous general Du Chongwei. Du, who had surrendered to the Khitans and held Yecheng defiantly, was eventually forced to surrender due to starvation. Though spared initially by Liu Zhiyuan, he was executed by the court immediately after the emperor’s death. The populace, harboring deep hatred for his betrayal, desecrated his corpse until it was unrecognizable.
Emperor Liu Chengyou, young and insecure, attempted to assert authority by purging senior ministers and ordering the assassination of the powerful general Guo Wei. Guo, stationed on the frontier, refused to wait for death. Supported by his troops, who draped a yellow banner over him – a symbol of imperial ambition – he marched on the capital. Liu Chengyou fled and was killed by his own men. Guo Wei initially installed Liu Yun, an adopted son of the previous emperor, but soon deposed him. In 951 AD, Guo Wei founded the Later Zhou dynasty, ending the four-year reign of the Later Han. In response, Liu Chong, Liu Yun’s biological father, declared independence in Jinyang, establishing the Northern Han dynasty with Khitan support. This period, marked by the succession of Later Liang, Tang, Jin, Han, and Zhou, is known as the “Five Dynasties,” while the simultaneous fragmentation in the south gave rise to the “Ten Kingdoms.” Unlike the war-torn north, the south enjoyed relative stability, allowing its economy to surpass that of the north.
The Humble Emperor and His Successor
Guo Wei, born into poverty and risen through the ranks, understood the suffering of the common people. Upon ascending the throne, he vowed not to indulge in luxury at the expense of his subjects. He implemented policies of frugality, banned extravagant tributes, punished corrupt officials, redistributed state-owned land to peasants, and reduced unreasonable taxes. These measures encouraged commerce and brought refugees back to the fields, revitalizing agriculture.
In his fourth year, gravely ill and having lost his biological sons to the previous regime’s purges, Guo Wei prepared for the end. He summoned his adoptive son and nephew, Chai Rong, instructing him to ensure a simple burial. “The Tang emperors filled their tombs with treasures, only to be robbed,” Guo warned. “Follow the example of Emperor Wen of Han; bury me in paper clothes and a clay coffin, with no treasures.” Upon Guo Wei’s death, Chai Rong ascended the throne as Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou. Having managed household affairs and traded tea before entering politics, Chai Rong possessed a keen understanding of economics and governance. When asked by the astronomer Wang Pu how long he expected to reign, Chai Rong boldly declared, “If I have thirty years, I will spend ten unifying the realm, ten enriching the people, and ten strengthening the state.”
The Battle of Gaoping and Military Reform
Chai Rong’s ambitions were immediately tested when Liu Chong of Northern Han, seeking revenge for his son’s death and aided by Khitan troops, invaded. Despite opposition from the veteran prime minister Feng Dao – who cynically questioned the young emperor’s capability – Chai Rong insisted on leading the campaign personally, drawing parallels to Emperor Taizong of Tang. Dismissing Feng Dao, who had served four dynasties without loyalty to any, Chai Rong marched out to meet the enemy.
At Gaoping in 954 AD, the Later Zhou forces faced a combined Northern Han and Khitan army. Initially, the Zhou line wavered; generals Fan Aineng and He Wei fled at the first sign of trouble, causing chaos. Ignoring orders to retreat, they even killed a messenger. Chai Rong, realizing the crisis, led his personal guard into the fray. His bravery inspired the troops, while generals like Zhao Kuangyin charged into the enemy ranks, turning the tide. The Northern Han general Zhang Yuanhui was killed, and Liu Chong, terrified, ordered a retreat. The Khitan observers, impressed by the Zhou resilience, also withdrew. Reinforcements arrived, and the Zhou launched a counterattack, routing the enemy completely.
Victorious, Chai Rong returned to the capital and enacted strict military reforms. He executed the cowardly generals Fan Aineng and He Wei to restore discipline, promoted heroes like Zhao Kuangyin, and instituted a policy of selecting only the fittest soldiers and most capable officers. He recognized that a strong military was essential for unification.
Cultural Revival and Religious Regulation
Beyond military matters, Chai Rong sought to revive culture, countering the notion that “stability relies only on spears, not brushes.” He emphasized the importance of law, calendar reform, music, the imperial examination system, and historical compilation to unify the people’s hearts.
He also addressed the issue of Buddhism, which had grown unchecked, with many monks avoiding labor and taxes. Unlike previous emperors who had brutally suppressed Buddhism, Chai Rong adopted a policy of regulation rather than eradication. He decreed that ordination required parental permission and passing an examination on Buddhist scriptures. Self-mutilation for religious purposes was banned, and capable monks were encouraged to serve in government or the military. This balanced approach curbed abuse while preserving the religion’s core.
The Campaigns of Unification
With internal stability secured, Chai Rong turned to expansion. He first targeted the four prefectures (Qin, Feng, Cheng, and Jie) lost to Later Shu. Despite initial setbacks and advice to retreat, he persisted, sending Zhao Kuangyin to assess the situation. Realizing the need for better logistics, Chai Rong ensured ample supplies, leading to the successful recovery of the four states.
Next, he focused on the Southern Tang, the strongest of the southern kingdoms. Leading three personal campaigns, he conquered fourteen prefectures north of the Yangtze River, forcing Southern Tang to submit. Emboldened by these successes, the southern states began treating Later Zhou as the central hegemon. Chai Rong’s ultimate goal remained the recovery of the Sixteen Prefectures from the Khitan Liao dynasty. He shifted his gaze northward, preparing for what he hoped would be the final step in reuniting China, though fate would cut his ambitious plans short.
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