In the chaotic final years of the Eastern Han Dynasty, few conflicts better illustrate the clash between moral authority and military power than the fatal struggle between Liu Yu and Gongsun Zan.
Liu Yu, a respected imperial clansman and governor of Youzhou, was celebrated for his benevolent rule, integrity, and popularity among the people. Gongsun Zan, by contrast, was a ruthless warlord with a strong private army, known as the “White Horse Volunteers,” who wielded real military power in the region.
Though Liu Yu was nominally superior—appointed by the Han court—Gongsun Zan controlled the troops. This imbalance created an inevitable conflict.
In 193 AD, Liu Yu launched a campaign with 100,000 men to eliminate Gongsun Zan. Yet instead of victory, he met defeat, capture, and execution.
How could such a large force be crushed so easily?
The Power Divide: Nominal authority vs. Real military control
At the heart of the conflict was a fundamental contradiction:
- Liu Yu held official legitimacy—he was the imperial governor, appointed by the emperor to govern Youzhou.
- Gongsun Zan, however, commanded the actual armed forces, having built his power through years of frontier warfare against the Wuhuan and Xianbei tribes.
This made their relationship unstable. Liu Yu represented civil administration and Han law, while Gongsun Zan embodied military autonomy and warlordism.
Their cooperation had been uneasy:
- Liu Yu often withheld supplies and grain from Gongsun Zan during his campaigns against Yuan Shao,
- Gongsun Zan resented these restrictions, seeing them as obstruction from a weak bureaucrat.
Yet, paradoxically, Liu Yu’s survival depended on Gongsun Zan. Without his military strength, the northern frontier would have collapsed under barbarian invasions. In this sense, they were mutually dependent—Liu Yu provided legitimacy; Gongsun Zan provided security.
But when trust broke down, only force remained.
A show of strength, But flawed strategy
In the winter of 193 AD, Liu Yu decided to act.
He mobilized 100,000 troops—a massive force on paper—and marched against Gongsun Zan at Ji City (modern-day Beijing).
To demonstrate resolve, he executed Cheng Xu, an advisor who urged caution, declaring:
“I will not tolerate hesitation in the face of rebellion.”
While this showed determination, it also revealed a lack of strategic flexibility—Liu Yu preferred symbolic authority over prudent counsel.
Crucially, the plan was betrayed.
Gongsun Ji, one of Liu Yu’s staff officers, shared a surname with Gongsun Zan and had long received favors from him. He secretly leaked the entire plan to Gongsun Zan, allowing him to prepare.
Gongsun Zan’s Defense
When news came that Liu Yu was approaching with 100,000 men, Gongsun Zan initially panicked and planned to flee eastward.
But Liu Yu’s advance was slow—not due to numbers, but because:
- His army consisted largely of conscripted civilians and poorly trained militia,
- He imposed strict orders not to disturb, harm civilians or burn villages, fearing moral compromise.
This restraint became his weakness.
By the time Liu Yu reached Ji City, Gongsun Zan had regrouped.
From within the city walls, he gathered several hundred elite cavalry—his core White Horse troops—and launched a surprise counterattack.
Taking advantage of the wind direction, Gongsun Zan set fires outside the city, causing chaos in Liu Yu’s ranks as soldiers rushed to extinguish the flames.
Amid the disorder, Gongsun Zan’s cavalry charged into Liu Yu’s camp, cutting through unprepared troops.
The result was a rout.
Liu Yu’s massive army, lacking discipline and combat experience, collapsed under a swift, focused assault.
The Fall of Ju Yong
Defeated, Liu Yu fled north with his family and key followers to Ju Yong County, hoping to make a last stand.
But Gongsun Zan pursued relentlessly.
He laid siege to Ju Yong and, within just three days, breached its defenses. The city fell quickly—another sign of the poor fighting quality of Liu Yu’s remaining forces.
Liu Yu, along with his wife, children, and officials, was captured and taken back to Ji City.
There, despite his imperial status and widespread public support, Gongsun Zan had him executed in the marketplace—a symbolic act of total domination.
Before his death, loyalists like Sun Jin and Zhang Zan came to see him, cursing Gongsun Zan to his face. They too were killed.
Their defiance highlighted Liu Yu’s moral authority—but also the futility of virtue without power.
The irony of power: Mutual dependence and Self-destruction
Ironically, Gongsun Zan’s victory sowed the seeds of his own downfall. Liu Yu had been deeply popular among the people and local elites. His benevolent governance earned genuine loyalty.
By executing him, Gongsun Zan lost the moral high ground and alienated the very population he needed to rule. As historical records note, many officials and commoners wept openly at the news of Liu Yu’s death.
Moreover, without Liu Yu’s restraining influence, Gongsun Zan ruled through fear and militarism, further eroding support.
Eventually, Yuan Shao exploited this discontent, defeating Gongsun Zan in later battles and leading to his final defeat and suicide at Yi Province in 199 AD.
In this light, killing Liu Yu was not just immoral—it was strategically foolish.
As the saying goes: “He destroyed his enemy, but also destroyed himself.”
Why Liu Yu failed?
Liu Yu’s defeat was not due to a lack of numbers, but to fundamental weaknesses in leadership, military capability, and strategy:
- His army lacked combat effectiveness—composed of undisciplined conscripts, not professional soldiers.
- His moral rigidity blinded him to realpolitik—he valued righteousness over intelligence and adaptability.
- He failed to secure loyalty within his own ranks—betrayal by Gongsun Ji proved fatal.
- He underestimated Gongsun Zan’s tactical brilliance—a small, elite force defeated a large, disorganized army.
His tragic end serves as a timeless reminder:
Moral authority without military strength is vulnerable.
And military strength without popular support is unsustainable.
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